Тема: Среда программирования
Цель: изучить среду программирования на примере GW–Basic, отработать навыки вычисления арифметических выражений в GW–Basic, научиться составлять простейшие программы.
Содержание работы:
Задание №1. Написать программу для нахождения значения арифметического выражения.
1) 2)
Задание №2. Написать программу, которая выведет на экран Ваши ФИО и адрес местожительства.
Задание №3. Ответить на вопросы:
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1. Что такое программа? |
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2. Что называется оператором? |
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3. Как осуществляется просмотр результата программы в GW–Basic? |
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4. Для чего предназначен оператор INPUT в GW–Basic? |
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5. Как найти значение арифметического выражения в GW–Basic? |
Тема: Тестирование готовой программы
Цель: изучить на основе готовой программы операторы разветвляющейся структуры языка GW–Basic и научиться составлять простейшие программы с использованием операторов условного и безусловного перехода.
Содержание работы:
Задание №1. Протестировать программу для задачи №1 и записать свои данные в таблицу:
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Значения переменной x |
Значения функции y |
Задание №2. Составить программу, которая в зависимости от введённого числа либо вычисляет функцию, либо выдаёт сообщение, что функция не определена.
Записать свои данные в таблицу:
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Значения исходных данных |
Значения функции y |
Задание №3. Протестировать программу для задачи №2 и записать свои данные в таблицу:
|
Значения переменной x |
Значения функции y |
Задание №4. Составить программу для решения задачи.
Записать свои данные в таблицу:
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Значения исходных данных |
Значения функции y |
Задание №5. Ответить на вопросы:
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1. Какая программа называется разветвляющейся? |
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2. Укажите общий вид оператора условного перехода в GW–Basic. |
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3. Укажите общий вид оператора цикла безусловного перехода в GW–Basic. |
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4. С помощью каких логических связок можно записать сложные условия? |
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5. Какому оператору передастся управление в случае невыполнения условия? |
Тема: Программная реализация несложного алгоритма
Цель: изучить на основе готовой программы операторы циклической структуры языка GW–Basic и научиться составлять программы с использованием операторов цикла «ДЛЯ» и «ПОКА».
Содержание работы:
Задание №1. Составить программу для решения задачи, используя цикл «ДЛЯ».
Задание №2. Составить программу для вычисления значения суммы, используя цикл «ПОКА»:
Записать свои данные в таблицу:
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Значения исходных данных |
Значения искомых данных |
Задание №3. Ответить на вопросы:
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1. Какая программа называется циклической? |
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2. Какие операторы используются для организации цикла в программе? |
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3. Что называется телом цикла? |
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4. Какая переменная называется управляющей переменной? |
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5. Какой оператор обеспечивает изменение управляющей переменной более чем на 1? |
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6. Что такое сложные циклы и как они записываются в программе? |
Сделать вывод о проделанной лабораторной работе:
Обновлено: 19.05.2023
Среда программирования QBasic.
Бейсик (Basic) – диалоговый учебный язык программирования для персональных компьютеров. На современных компьютерах используется следующие версии Basic: GWBasic, QBasic 4.5, Turbo Basic для DOS, Visual Basic 3.0-6.0 для Windows. Здесь мы рассмотрим QBasic 4.5.
QBasic входит в состав операционной системы MS-DOS 6.0-6.22. Есть русифицированная версия QBasic.
Для запуска QBasic надо или найти файл qbasic.exe и Enter, или ввести в командную строку qbasic и Enter. Меню – Alt.
Запуск программы Shift-F5.
Получение помощи Shift-F1.
Создать файл: Меню Файл, Сохранить Как, выбрать каталог, задать имя файла, ОК. Файл получит расширение bas.
Сохранить файл: Меню Файл, Сохранить.
Открыть файл, то есть считать его с диска: Меню Файл, Открыть.
Выход из QBasic: Меню Файл, Выход.
Копирование выделенного фрагмента программы в буфер (Edit,Copy) – Ctrl-Insert,
Вставка фрагмента из буфера (Edit,Paste) – Shift-Insert,
Вырезать (Edit,Cut) – Shift-Delete.
Удобно выделять и делать все указанные операции с помощью мыши. Можно выделенный фрагмент программы вставить в другой файл, если после выделения открыть его.
В QBasic 4.5 можно откомпилировать текстовый bas-файл, превратив его в двоичный exe-файл, который можно использовать отдельно, то есть без среды программирования QBasic.
Переменная в программе
Переменная – это область в памяти компьютера, где хранится некоторое значение. Каждая переменная имеет имя, значение и тип.
Имя переменной обозначается английской буквой, после которой может быть цифра, причем первой стоит буква, например: x, y, z, A1, B2. Имя переменной служит для обозначения некоторой величины в программе, которая при выполнении программы может иметь какое-либо значение, но может быть и не определена. Пример задания часто употребляемой константы: pi=3.14159.
Типы переменых: целая, вещественная, логическая, символьная, строковая и др. Если в переменной хранится число, то это числовая переменная, если в переменной хранится слово или фраза, то это строковая (символьная) переменная. В QBasic строковая переменная обозначается a$, b$ (в конце имени стоит знак доллара $). Содержимое хранится в переменной, до тех пор, пока оно не будет специально изменено.
Операция предачи новых данных в переменную называется присваиванием и обозначается в QBasic знаком ” +” и “-” – сложение и вычитание;
“*” и “/” – умножение и деление;
“^” – возведение в любую степень;
(x+3.14)/(a+b) – используются только круглые скобки и десятичная точка вместо запятой.
Пример: S=Vo*t+g*t^2/2
В QBasic применяются следующие встроенные функции:
SQR(X) – извлечение квадратного корня;
ABS(X) – модуль (абсолютная величина) числа;
SIN(X); COS(X); TAN(X) – тригонометрические функции синус, косинус и тангенс угла в радианах;
ATN(X) – арктангенс числа в радианах;
INT(X) – округление числа (дробная часть числа отбрасывается);
RND(X) – случайное число;
z = y MOD x – целый остаток от деления y на x.
LOG(X) – логарифмическая функция (натуральный логарифм по основанию e=2.71828);
EXP(X) – показательная (экспоненциальная) функция.
Операции ввода-вывода информации
Для вывода (печати) информации на экран применяется оператор PRINT. Пример:
PRINT X – вывод на экран значения числа X.
PRINT “Скорость тела равна: V=”; V; “м/с” – выводимый на экран текст указывается в кавычках. Вместо знака “;” можно ставить знак “,”.
Просто оператор PRINT без текста и знаков даёт пустую строку на экране.
Если при работе в среде QBasic 4.5 вместо слова PRINT ставить знак вопроса “?”, а затем нажать Enter, то слово PRINT само появится на экране. Это упрощает работу программиста.
Ввод данных с клавиатуры осуществляется с помощью оператора INPUT
Пример: INPUT X – ввод числа X. На экране появится знак “?” и компьютер ждёт ввода переменной Х (это приглашение ввести число).
INPUT “Введите число Х=”; X – можно вводить в кавычках подсказку, она будет выводиться на экран. После подсказки можно ставить знак “,” вместо знака “;”, но тогда знака вопроса “?” на экране не будет, а вместо него в качестве приглашения будет мигать курсор.
Пример 1: Вычислить площадь треугольника по формуле Герона.
CLS
‘Определите площадь треугольника по формуле Герона.
INPUT “Введите величину стороны a: a Введите величину стороны b: b Введите величину стороны c: c Ответ: площадь треугольника равна: S Введите свою фамилию: “, f$
INPUT “Введите своё имя: “, i$
INPUT “Введите свой класс: “, k$
PRINT f$; ” “; i$; “, “; k$
END
Управляющие конструкции QBasic
1. Оператор безусловного перехода GOTO N, где N-метка. В качестве N можно взять любое число, не обязательно совпадающее с номером строки, так как в QBasic 4.5 строки можно не нумеровать. Но двух одинаковых меток в одной программе не должно быть. Исполнение программы будет продолжено с той её части, которая начинается с указанной метки.
Пример:
GOTO 10
10 PRINT “Текст”
2. Условный оператор IF. THEN. ELSE (Если. Тогда. Иначе):
IF THEN ELSE
Если заданное условие истинно, выполняется список операторов, стоящий после THEN, в противном случае выполняется список операторов, стоящий после ELSE.
Слово ELSE может и отсутствовать. Тогда происходит переход к строке, следующей за оператором IF. THEN.
Условия представляют собой логические соотношения: равенства или неравенства = равно, <> неравно, > больше, = больше или равно, B.
Пример 1: Напечатать на экране текст 20 раз.
CLS
FOR X=1 TO 20
PRINT “С Новым Годом!”
NEXT X
Пример 2: Вычислить сумму n первых членов ряда S=1+1/4+1/9+. +1/n^2
CLS
INPUT “Введите число членов ряда: n Сумма n первых членов ряда равна: S При x=-1, x=6 функция не определена!”
ELSE y = 1 / (x ^ 2 – 5 * x – 6)
PRINT “x=”; x, ” y При 1 1-эллипс вытянут вдоль малой оси.
Пример: CIRCLE (160, 100), 70, 15, , , 0.5
Пример графики на QBasic: Квадрат, три концентрические окружности и точка. Программа имеет вид:
SCREEN 7
COLOR 14, 8
PRINT “Пример графики на QBasic:”
LINE (100, 50)-(220, 150), 13, B
CIRCLE (160, 100), 20, 11
CIRCLE (160, 100), 30, 12
CIRCLE (160, 100), 40, 14
PSET (160, 100), 15
END
Установка цветов в операторе COLOR QBasic:
Число Цвет
0 Черный
1 Синий
2 Зеленый
3 Голубой
4 Красный
5 Фиолетовый
6 Коричневый
7 Серый
8 Темно-серый
9 Светло-синий
10 Светло-зеленый
11 Светло-голубой
12 Светло-красный
13 Светло-фиолетовый
14 Желтый
15 Белый
Некоторые сочетания цветов в операторе COLOR QBasic:
1) 14, 8 – желтый на темно-сером фоне;
Поясняю: Программный код выводит на экран большое количество информации, которое не помещается на экране, как сделать так, чтобы можно было листать экраны, также как к примеру dir без ключа выводит целиком, а с ключом по пробелу листает?
Мы постоянно добавляем новый функционал в основной интерфейс проекта. К сожалению, старые браузеры не в состоянии качественно работать с современными программными продуктами. Для корректной работы используйте последние версии браузеров Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Microsoft Edge или установите браузер Atom.
При входе в интегрированную среду QBasic на экране появляется окно, в верхней части которого высвечивается полоса меню:
Файл Редактирования Просмотр Поиск Запуск Отладка Параметры Справка
При работе в QBasic следует обращать внимание на нижнюю строку экрана, в которой дается подсказка, соответствующая конкретному моменту работы.
Выход из меню осуществляется кнопкой Esc.
Окна среды программирования.
1. В верхней части окна располагается окно редактирования, в которое вводится еткст программы.
Результат выполнения операций выводится в 3-е окно.
Основные операторы для составления программ линейной структуры в QBasic.
1. REM – оператор с комментарием (от слова Remark).
REM решение квадратного уравнения
Иногда вместо REM допустимо ставить одиночную кавычку ‘
2. В среде QBasic довольно часто пользователям приходится осуществлять ввод значений строковых и числовых переменных. Для этого используется оператор INPUT (ввести), который позволяет производить считывание вводимых значений с клавиатуры.
Общий вид оператора Input
Input (подсказка), х1, х2,…,xi
(подсказка)-текстовая константа, может быть опущена.
3. для ввода данных и результатов в среде QBasic используется оператор PRINT. Он служит для вывода значений величин на экран в процессе выполнения программы.
Общий вид опретора
PRINT(подсказка), х1, х2,…,xi
4. оператор END – конец.
Rem решение уравнения
При входе в интегрированную среду QBasic на экране появляется окно, в верхней части которого высвечивается полоса меню:
Файл Редактирования Просмотр Поиск Запуск Отладка Параметры Справка
При работе в QBasic следует обращать внимание на нижнюю строку экрана, в которой дается подсказка, соответствующая конкретному моменту работы.
Выход из меню осуществляется кнопкой Esc.
Окна среды программирования.
1. В верхней части окна располагается окно редактирования, в которое вводится еткст программы.
Результат выполнения операций выводится в 3-е окно.
Основные операторы для составления программ линейной структуры в QBasic.
1. REM – оператор с комментарием (от слова Remark).
REM решение квадратного уравнения
Иногда вместо REM допустимо ставить одиночную кавычку ‘
2. В среде QBasic довольно часто пользователям приходится осуществлять ввод значений строковых и числовых переменных. Для этого используется оператор INPUT (ввести), который позволяет производить считывание вводимых значений с клавиатуры.
Общий вид оператора Input
Input (подсказка), х1, х2,…,xi
(подсказка)-текстовая константа, может быть опущена.
3. для ввода данных и результатов в среде QBasic используется оператор PRINT. Он служит для вывода значений величин на экран в процессе выполнения программы.
Для составления простейших (линейных) программ на языке QBasic используются следующие операторы:
пример: Написать программу вычисления выражения при .
Программа
REM Вычисление выражения
END
Содержание работы:
Вариант №__
Задание №1.Написать программу для нахождения значения арифметического выражения:
Программа:
Ответ: __________
Задание №2.Написать программу, которая выведет на экран Ваши ФИО и адрес местожительства.
Программа:
Задание №3.Написать программу вычисления выражения:
Программа:
Ответ: __________
Задание №4. Ответить на вопросы:
| 1. Что такое программа? |
| 2. Что называется оператором? |
| 3. Как осуществляется просмотр результата программы в Qbasic? |
| 4. Для чего предназначен оператор INPUT в Qbasic? |
| 5. Как найти значение арифметического выражения в Qbasic? |
Задание №5. Сделать вывод о проделанной лабораторной работе:
Лабораторная работа №5
Тема: Тестирование готовой программы
Цель:изучить на основе готовой программы операторы разветвляющейся структуры языка QBasic и научиться составлять простейшие программы с использованием операторов условного и безусловного перехода.
Теоретические сведения к лабораторной работе
Определение разветвляющейся программы
Разветвляющейся называется программа, которая является записью разветвляющегося алгоритма, то есть выбирается один из нескольких возможных вариантов вычислительного процесса.
В разветвляющихся программах часто требуется обеспечить иной порядок выполнения операторов в отличие от линейных программ. Для этой цели служат операторы передачи управления.
Рассмотрим 2 из них.
Виды операторов передачи управления
1. Оператор безусловного перехода– служит для перехода из одной строки программы к другой.
Общий вид оператора:
GOTO n
В качестве метки используются натуральные числа с двоеточием после них. Метка указывается только в начале строки. Если в строке программы несколько операторов, то нельзя ставить метку перед вторым.
Например: программа, рисующая на экране 3 символа звездочки по диагонали.
CLS
1: PRINT “*”
PRINT “ *”
PRINT “ *”
GOTO 1
Ctrl+Break – прерывание выполнения программы
2. Оператор условного перехода– обеспечивает в программе проверку условий и организацию ветвления.
Условные выражения – символьная запись, составленная из переменных, чисел, функций, строк символов.
Примеры:
Знаками отношения в условных выражениях служат: =, >, , >=,
Примеры:
Общий вид оператора:
Полная форма записи
IF THENP1ELSEP2
Сокращенная форма записи
IF THENP1
P1, P2– группа операторов
Например:
1. IF x THENP1ELSEP2).
Программа будет выглядеть следующим образом:
Задача №2: составить программу для вычисления значения функции по одной из формул
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Contents
Preface
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1 Basic History
- 1.2 Getting Started
- 1.3 Exercises
- 2. Structure and Style
- 2.1 More BASIC Controls
- 2.2 IF THEN Statements
- 2.3 Check Book Balancer
- 2.4 Summary
- 2.5 Exercises
- 3. Loops, Colors and Sound
- 3.1 Looping
- 3.2 Exercise: Make this game more interactive
- 3.3 Colors
- 3.4 Exercise
- 3.5 Sounds
- 4. Arrays and DATA Statements
- 4.1 Arrays
- 4.2 Exercises
- 4.3 DATA Statements
- 4.4 Exercises
- 4.5 Final Exercise
- 5. GOSUBS and FUNCTIONS
- 5.1 Why GOSUBS?
- 5.2 … A POLITICAL ANNOUNCEMENT
- 5.3 Renumbering (RENUM)
- 5.4 Exercise
- 5.5 FUNCTIONS
- 5.7 More Exercises
- 5.8 Exercise using GOSUBS or FUNCTIONS
- 5.9 Extra Credit
- 6. Files
- 6.1 Sequential versus Random Files
- 6.2 What’s in a file?
- 6.3 Using Files
- 6.4 Sequential Details
- 6.5 Notes on Random Files
- 6.6 Questions and Answers
- 6.7 Projects
- 7. Simple Graphics
- 7.1 WIDTH
- 7.2 SCREEN
- 7.3 Exercise
- 7.4 More Exercises
- 7.5 For Super-Extra Credit
- 7.6 The End of the Beginning
Preface
This training course shows you the elements of the Basic programming
language. Basic Training covers the essentials to get you started. Advanced
Basic (available only to registered users), picks up from that point and
covers areas such as animation, error trapping and real time event
programming. (Run the REGISTER program for details on how to obtain the
second part.)
The dialect of Basic that I use in this first part is based on the extended
Basic named GW-BASIC or BASICA that comes with the IBM PC and most
compatibles. The tutorial includes many examples. The source code is also
included with each tutorial, so you can run it, modify it and experiment with
it. I recommend that you make a backup copy or rename the source files,
though, before starting to experiment. All the programs in this first part,
and most of those in the second can be run using just an interpreter, but if
you’re serious about learning Basic, I strongly recommend that you purchase
one of the compilers.
[… back to the Contents]
1. Introduction
1.1 Basic History
Basic was invented at Dartmouth in the 50’s as a response to the problems of
instructing a computer. Previously, it was necessary for a programmer to
understand the computer at the machine level before you could get it to do
anything useful. This was much like requiring a course in auto mechanics
before you could hire a taxi. With Basic, you gain an assistant who
“interprets” their instructions and gets them where you want to go without
worrying about the “fiddly bits”. Basic is only one of a series of
“languages” which have been developed for this purpose. In its original
form, it was limited compared to richer languages such as Fortran or Pascal.
In recent years, especially since the advent of microcomputers, Basic has
been enhanced and can now stand as tall as any of the other languages. Each
language has its advocates. In my daily consulting work and game design
programming, I use many languages routinely. Basic remains one of my choices
when I need to write a quick program of any sort, especially if it calls for
graphics. This easy-to-write quality combined with its simple structure
makes Basic a prime candidate for your first computer language. If you
already speak one computer language, learning Basic is an easy way to expand
your fluency.
[… back to the Contents]
1.2 Getting Started
Throughout this tutorial, I try to use commands that are common across all
Basics. When that’s not possible (for example with graphics and sound), I
use Microsoft Basic for the IBM PC. Most other Basics used on IBM
compatibles are identical, but occasionally there are small differences.
Consult your user’s manual to check on inconsistencies. When discussing
compilers, I use the TurboBasic/PowerBasic syntax.
To get started, we’ll create a simple, 2 line program. The program itself is
less important than the mechanics of how to create, save and run a Basic
program. Don’t worry about what each line does right now, we’ll cover that
soon.
Start your version of Basic. If you’re using an interpreter, just type:
basica
or
gw-basic
This loads interpreter Basic and you’ll see the OK prompt. Depending on the
version of DOS you have on your computer, there may be a different name for
the basic interpreter. Check your DOS manual for the actual command name.
If you’re running a compiler such as PowerBasic or QuickBasic, start the
program, and run the examples in interactive mode ( alt-R). (There’s no OK
prompt when you use these products.)
As an incentive, we’ll send you a copy of the Liberty Basic compiler for
Windows when you register. This compiler lets you run Basic in the Windows
environment without the need to learn all the complexities of Windows
programming. Print out the order form for details.
Enter the command:
REGISTER at the DOS prompt.
Now type the following 2 lines:
10 PRINT "hello there...."
20 GOTO 10
To test it out, type
RUN
or, if using a compiler, press alt-R (or otherwise invoke the Run command).
You should see your message repeated endlessly. Since your computer has more
patience than you for this sort of eternal game, press the <control><break>
keys to end the program. You’ve just written and run a complete Basic
program. This short program shows two quite useful statements. “Print”
causes anything coming after it to be echoed to the screen. “Goto” tells the
program to jump to the line indicated (in this case 10). Thus our program
will print the 2 words, then execute line 20. Since this line tells it to go
back to line 10, we get what’s termed an “infinite loop”. Usually this is
the result of a programming error or bug.
This short program also introduces the concept of line numbers. These
numbers let the interpreter know the order in which to try to execute the
commands. It also gives you a reference for GOTO commands. Interpreters
require line numbers. Compilers can use them or not, as you like. Modern
practise is to avoid them whenever possible, but I’ll include them
occasionally for backwards compatibility.
Our first program lacks elegance, and accomplishes nothing of much use, but
it gives us something to build on. More importantly, it gives us something
to save! You can save it now, by typing:
SAVE "Hello"
for the interpreter, or by using the File command, and the Save option if in
a compiler.
Then leave the Basic interpreter by typing
SYSTEM
Leave the compiler by typing alt-X.
If you want to check that your program is really there, use the directory
command:
DIR H*.*
You should see “Hello.bas” (plus any other programs you have that start with
“h”). Note that Basic automatically assigns an extension of “.bas” to any
program you save. You can override this, but good programming practise
recommends against this. It will be easier to keep track of you rapidly
increasing selection of programs if you keep the extensions meaningful. To
run the program you have two choices. If you want to jump right into the
program, you just type:
BASICA Hello
This will load the Basic program and immediately begin to run your program.
Again, you’ll need to break in order to stop this monster. Another approach
would be to load Basic first, then issue the command:
RUN "Hello"
Note that this second case requires the use of quotes, but the result is the
same, an endless stream of hello’s.
The next element we’ll look at is the assignment statement. This allows us
to set the value of variables. Basic has three main categories of elements:
| Reserved words |– special words like "print" and "goto"
that have a special meaning to the interpreter
| Constants | — numerical and string values like:
2, 3.5 and “Hello there…”. (Note that string values
use quote marks to show their beginning and end.)
| Variables | — anything else.
That’s not quite fair, but it’s close. Variables are what give life to an
otherwise rather boring collection of reserved words and constants (even
their names are boring!). A variable is what you create to represent some
other value. Think of them as containers that can hold many values. For
example, if I use the variable X, I can put many values into it. This
process is accomplished with the “LET” statement:
LET X = 10
This says that X now has the value of 10. In fact very few programmers
bother with the LET statement (Many programmers have yet to discover that
you can use more than 2 fingers at a time on the keyboard, so they tend to
be brief.) A terser, and more common way is just to say:
X = 10
This may look familiar to you if you’ve taken algebra or new-math type
courses. However, be careful! The “=” sign should be read as “is assigned”
or “takes the value of”. Consider the following:
X = X + 1
This says that X is now to be given the value of whatever X was before, plus
1. In this case, 11. One of the advantages of an interpreter is that it can
give you an immediate response without running a program. You don’t need
special commands to use this mode, just don’t use line numbers. Thus if you
typed the initial line of our program, the interpreter would respond:
Hello there...
Note that the quotes have disappeared. One use you can make of this feature
is as a calculator. If you type any mathmatical expression, the interpreter
will give you an answer. Eg, try the following to see how each is interpreted:
2+1
2*3
4/2
2+4*5
(2+4)*5
Experiment until you feel comfortable with the way that arithmetic is
handled by the interpreter. Notice, particularly, that the order of
interpretation depends on both the operator and any parentheses. This is
called precedence.
Basic also uses some defaults to describe whether a variable is a string,
integer or real number. Strings are indicated by a ‘$’ as final digit,
integers as a ‘%’, and real values as ‘!’. You tell Basic to set this
default with the command:
DEFINT A-Z
This says any variable starting with the letters A to Z is an integer,
whether it has a ‘%’ at the end or not. You could also define specific
variables to be strings or integers, but that starts to get confusing, so I
use the convention that all variables are integers unless otherwise
indicated.
Now let’s see how this works in a program. We’ll start with our hello
program, already in memory, and add to it:
10 PRINT "hello there....";X
15 X = X + 1
20 GOTO 10
Before trying this, make a prediction about what will happen. You should
always try to predict what your program is going to do. Remembering that
prediction will help when it does something you didn’t anticipate.
[… back to the Contents]
1.3 Exercises
1. Experiment with various combinations of arithmetic operations, until you
can predict what the results will be. In particular, try examples which mix
multiplication and addition. What is the effect of using parentheses?
2. Use assignment statements to hold intermediate results. EG,
X = 2
Y = 3
X + Y
X = X + Y
PRINT X, Y
(Note that when you assign a value, it isn’t printed.)
[… back to the Contents]
2. Structure and Style
In the last chapter we looked at the most elementary statements in the Basic
language. This time, we’ll introduce the concept of branching and program
control. In the next few installments we’ll add loops, color, sound and
arrays. At that point you’ll be well equipped to start writing actual
programs.
[… back to the Contents]
2.1 More BASIC Controls
A few more commands useful from within the interpreter:
LOAD "myprog"- gets your program from the disk
LIST- lists the entire program
LIST i - j- lists only lines i to j
LLIST- lists the program to your printer
RENUM- renumbers your program. any relations within your program are preserved.
The compiler doesn’t need line numbers, and you can skip them entirely, so
most of these commands aren’t needed. Compilers have direct commands for
printing a file (usually under the FILE menu item.). I’ll continue to use
line numbers in this tutorial, but my reason for doing so is that it’s
easier to discuss a program when I can refer to particular line numbers. For
actual programs, I’ll usually skip them.
Structured programming is just a small part of the overall concept of
structured design. The root concept is to build a program from the top down.
It also discards the concept of flow charts. Here’s the reason: Flow charts
are unnecessarily detailed. By the time you break a problem down to flow
chart level, you can usually write the code directly. They’re so detailed,
that few programmers go back and change them when the program changes, so
flow charts are usually out of date as soon as they’re written. Structured
programming does use diagramming techniques, but for our purposes we’ll be
able to use pseudocode for all our designs. We approach the problem by
defining what we want to do at a very high level. For example, to create a
checkbook balancer, we might outline the following steps:
Enter initial balance
Add deposits
Subtract checks
Show final balance
Quit
Now we can elaborate this to describe each step in more detail:
Enter initial balance
Add deposits
-- ask user if there are any more deposits
-- if there are then
get the next deposit
add that amount to the balance
...repeat as necessary
Subtract checks
-- ask user if there are any more checks
-- if there are then
get the next check
subtract that amount from the balance
.... repeat as necessary
Show final balance
Quit
Note that some items require more elaboration than others. In some cases, we
could write the Basic code directly, so there’s no need for further
refinement. Now, we’re ready to write the actual code. Using this
structured, top down approach any problems become apparent from the start.
This text based way of describing a program is termed pseudocode, because
it’s simpler than English, but not rigorous enough to feed to the computer.
It forms a useful link between human and computer. Well written pseudocode
is easily converted to any language, and forms an outline of the program. It
also suggests a preliminary set of comments.
[… back to the Contents]
2.2 IF THEN Statements
All programming statements that we’ll look at are merely refinements or
alternate forms of 3 basic forms: assignments, loops and conditional
branching. Using only these 3 constructs, any possible program can be
written. IF THEN, combined with the GOTO is an example of the third type of
statement, the branch. In its simplest form,
IF { conditional statement } THEN
{ statement 1 }
ELSE
{ statement 2 }
Last time we saw the simplest version of the loop:
10 X = X + 1
20 PRINT X
30 GOTO 10
This is an infinite loop since it has no way to end. One way to end
it would be by adding a conditional branch:
10 X = X + 1
20 PRINT X
30 IF X < 10 GOTO 10
Now, line 20 says that you should jump back up to line 10, ONLY if X is less
than 10. (Basic uses the symbols <, >, <=, >= and <> to represent the ideas
“less than”, “greater than”, “less than or equal to”, “greater than or equal
to” and “not equal to”. Try substituting these operations in the fragment
above to see their effects.
The IF statement evaluates a conditional statement and then follows one of
several paths. You can have a simple IF statement without an ELSE. This says
that you want to do something only if the conditional is true, and you have
no other statements to process. Since the interpreted Basic IF statement
must all fit on one line, we can also use an expanded form when we have
several things that we want the statement to perform. We’ll see examples of
this in the sample program, CHECKBK.BAS.
10 ' checkbk.bas
20 ' a simple check book balancing program
30 ' copyright 1987, 1992 s m estvanik
40 '
50 CLS
60 PRINT "Check Book Balancing Program"
70 PRINT
80 INPUT "What is your opening balance";BALANCE
90 PRINT
95 PRINT "Next transaction? (D/eposit, C/heck, Q/uit)"
100 T$=INPUT$(1)
110 IF T$ <> "D" AND T$<> "d" GOTO 210 ' is this a deposit?
120 INPUT "Amount of deposit";DEPOSIT
140 PRINT USING "New balance is $#####.##";BALANCE
150 GOTO 90
210 IF T$ <> "C" AND T$<> "c" GOTO 300 ' is this a check?
220 INPUT "Amount of check";CHECK
230 BALANCE = BALANCE - CHECK ' subtract from balance
240 PRINT USING "New balance is $#####.##";BALANCE
250 GOTO 90
300 IF T$ <> "Q" AND T$<> "q" GOTO 90 ' do they want to quit?
400 PRINT ' we're done, so show the final balance
410 PRINT USING "Final balance is $#####.##";BALANCE
430 END
This version of the program uses only the simple statements that we’ve
discussed thus far. As we learn more about Basic, the exercises will suggest
ways you can return to this example to flesh it out. For now, try running
this program and follow its operation. (The example programs are included in
the tutorial package in a ready to run fashion. You can also clip out
segments of code from this tutorial and edit them.)
Since interpreter statements must fit on one line, we’re forced to use a
GOTO in order to create complex IF-THEN-ELSE statements. The compiler
doesn’t limit us this way, so we can construct statements without ever using
GOTO’s.
if X > 10 then
PRINT X; " is > 10"
else
PRINT X; " is <= 10"
[… back to the Contents]
2.3 Check Book Balancer
This is the first real program we’ve looked at, so let’s examine it in more
detail. One of the goals of structured programming is to make programs that
are easy to modify and maintain in the future. To this end, you should
include a header at the top of each program that describes what it does, and
most important, when it was last modified and by whom. Then in writing the
program, use comments wherever they help to explain the flow of the program.
Comments are ignored by the Basic interpreter and the compiler. They’re
indicated by either the word REM or more commonly, the apostrophe (‘).
Comments starting with ‘ may be either the first or last elements on a line.
This allows short comments to be placed more precisely. Combined with a
standard indentation comments make the program structure more readable. For
example, I indent any statements after an IF statement. I also indent any
GOTO that starts a statement. In this way you can see that the statements
are dependent on the IF statement and that the control is passed by the
GOTO. You’ll probably encounter any variants of indenting. The important
thing is to be consistent. Remember, though, that indenting is solely for
the human reader’s benefit. The computer acts on what it reads, not how it’s
formatted. Improper statements will not improve because of indenting.
If you have multiple IF statements, then the indentations would add up:
IF { condition A} THEN
IF { condition B } THEN
{ statement 1 }
ELSE
{ statement 2 }
ELSE
{ statement 3 }
In this example, if condition A is true, a second check on condition B is
made, resulting in either statement 1 or 2 being executed. If condition A
is false, then only statement 3 is executed and condition B isn’t even
checked.
The check book program first clears the screen (CLS), then announces itself
and uses a new command, INPUT, to ask for an opening balance. The INPUT
statement prints the string we give it (also called a ‘prompt ‘). It adds a
question mark and then waits for the user to enter an answer and hit the
enter key. It stores that value in the variable BALANCE. INPUT is simple to
use, but does have some drawbacks. Try entering some non-numeric characters.
INPUT recognizes illegal characters, but its response is less than elegant.
Later we’ll see some better ways for handling data input. After the balance
is entered, we enter the main loop of the program. The user indicates what
type of transaction comes next. (Note that we’ve changed the structure of
our program so that the user can enter deposits and checks in any order.)
The INPUT$(1) statement accepts precisely one character from the user and
doesn’t need a carriage return. This is much friendlier since the user only
needs to press one key each time.
Since we don’t care whether the user enters an upper or lower case letter,
we shouldn’t penalize them. Thus we’ll allow either when we check. Lines
110, 210 and 300 check to see if the value entered is not equal to one of
the valid codes. Thus in line 110, if T$ is not “T” or “t”, we go to 210 to
check. At any stage, if we find a match, we do the appropriate processing,
then go back to get the next transaction.
One last suggestion on GOTO’s. Do not jump up in the program, unless
absolutely necessary. That is, in reading a program, the normal flow should
be downwards. One exception would be a loop such as we have here. Line 90
starts the loop, and at the end of each transaction we return to it.
[… back to the Contents]
2.4 Summary
We’ve looked at some basic ideas of structured programming and created our
first useful program. We’ve also learned the IF-THEN construct. In addition,
we’ve already seen some of the elements of designing user friendly programs.
2.5 Exercises
1. Add a third option that allows the user to enter a monthly service fee.
Decide on a code, and add a new transaction that subtracts the fee. Be sure
to change the prompt line to show this new code.
2. The current program just ignores bad codes. Add a message line that
tells the user that they’ve entered a bad code, then asks them to reenter
their choice.
3. The PRINT USING statements are designed with home use in mind, so they
only have 5 figures in the display. What happens if the user inputs a
number such as $100,100 ? Assume that any number greater than 10000 is an
error. Add an extra check to both the deposit and check section that
prevents these numbers from being included. You should print an error
message and then go back to the transaction code input line without making
any changes to the balance.
4. Only positive numbers are valid for input. Check that each number
entered is greater than 0 before allowing it.
[… back to the Contents]
3. Loops, Colors and Sound
In the last section, we learned a simple way to have our programs branch on
different choices. This time, we’ll add more structured loops, color and
sound. In the following section, we’ll look at arrays and data statements
.
3.1 Looping
In the previous program, we used GOTO’s to move around. This is discouraged
by purists and for good reason. It’s too easy to write spaghetti code with
meatball logic that jumps all over. This makes it difficult for anyone else
to read or understand your code. It’s even hard to read your own code after
a week or two. To review, if we wanted to add up a random series of 10
numbers given by the user, we could write:
10 x = 1
20 sum = 0
30 print x
40 input "enter a number";n
50 sum = sum + n
60 x = x + 1
70 if x < 11 then goto 30
80 print "The sum of the numbers you gave is";sum
Basic provides two other ways to accomplish this, both of which make the
program more flexible and easier to understand. These are the FOR-NEXT and
the WHILE-WEND loops. Using FOR-NEXT, we would write
10 sum = 0
20 FOR x = 1 to 10|
30 print x
40 input "enter a number";n
50 sum = sum + n
60 NEXT x
70 print "The sum of the numbers you gave is";sum
Each FOR must have a corresponding NEXT. The FOR-NEXT statements repeat
automatically. The first number is the initial value, the second is the
final one. You can also use the STEP command to move by more than one.
These loops can be nested as shown in the following example. Note that the
last FOR started must be the first one finished.
10 input "Starting value (1-10)";x1
20 input "Ending value (20-30)";x2
30 print
40 for x = x1 to x2 step 2
50 for y = 1 to 5
60 print x*y;
70 next y
80 print
90 next x
Here we print a series of products, five to a line. The semicolon ensures
that all 5 products are printed on a single line. After Y’s FOR-NEXT loop
is finished, we do a simple PRINT statement to move to the next line.
Another form of looping is the WHILE-WEND pair. Our initial example could
be reconstructed as:
10 sum = 0
20 x = 1
30 WHILE x < 11
40 print x
50 input "enter a number";n
60 sum = sum + n
70 x = x + 1
80 WEND
90 print "The sum of the numbers you gave is";sum
The WHILE statement continues to loop until the condition is achieved.
Unlike the FOR-NEXT this might not happen. Consider the following:
10 x = 1
20 WHILE x > 11
30 input "enter a number";n
40 sum = sum + n
50 WEND
This program contains a common mistake. The value of X never changes, so
the loop repeats forever. If you’re testing and the program just wanders
off and never comes back, infinite loops are prime suspects. Check for non-
terminating WHILE loops by inserting a print statement.
In the above examples, a FOR-NEXT loop is actually preferred, since we
really intend the loop to be executed a fixed number of times. There are
many cases when only a WHILE will do. WHILE’s can handle loops when the
ending conditions are unclear. For example:
10 pts = 0
20 die.roll = int(rnd*6) + 1 ' random number bet 1 and 6
30 while die.roll <> 6 and pts < 20|
40 pts = pts + die.roll
50 die.roll = int(rnd*6) + 1
60 wend
70 if die.roll = 6 then pts = 0
80 if pts>0 then print "You made";pts;"points" else print"You lost"
This is a simple game in which you have a chance of winning up to 24 points
if the “die” manages to avoid coming up 6. RND is a Basic function that
returns a random number between 0 and 1. INT(RND*6) then converts this to a
random number between 0 and 5. Since dice have no 0’s we add one to it.
Here the while statement has 2 possible ways to end. Either the die rolls a
6, or the total points becomes 20 or greater. If the loop ends with a die
roll of 6, then all points are lost.
[… back to the Contents]
3.2 Exercise: Make this game more interactive
After every die roll, show the current points and give the user a chance
to quit, keeping their current points. Allow an unlimited number of
points to be accumulated. Don’t use any GOTO’s in your solution.
3.3 Colors
Assuming you have a CGA or EGA card, you can easily add colors and video
effects to your programs. There are 8 colors, with 4 possibilities for each
color, defined as follows:
"dark" "light" dark, blinking light,blinking
------ ------- -------------- --------------
black 0 8 16 24
blue 1 9 17 25
green 2 10 18 26
cyan 3 11 19 27
red 4 12 20 28
magenta 5 13 21 29
brown 6 14 22 30
white 7 15 23 31
On the CGA you can have any of the 32 colors as a foreground color. This is
the color that letters and other characters will use. You can also set any
of the 8 colors as a background color. This allows reverse video effects.
Try the following:
10 color 7,0
20 print "try me"
30 color 0,7
40 print "try me"
50 color 15,1
60 print "try me"
70 color 31,1
80 print "try me"
The program included on the disk, COLORS.BAS gives a more extensive display
of the color range. First it reproduces the table above, but using actual
colors for the numbers. Then it shows all combinations of foreground and
background. Note that if foreground and background are the same, the
letters can’t be read.
Color can be easily abused. Clashing colors or too many colors distract
rather than attract. Try to avoid using flashing messages for all but the
most important warnings. In particular, don’t use flashing colors for input
messages. They are difficult to read. Use colors which are easy to read,
with the more garish colors saved for special cases. The most readable
color combinations on most displays are:
(bright) white on blue
(bright) yellow on blue
(bright) white on red (useful for error messages)
(bright) yellow on red " " " "
(bright) white on black
black on white
(bright) green on black
(bright) yellow on black
(bright) indicates either light or dark is ok.
We’ll use colors more later when we look at more of the graphics commands.
For now, try the following problem:
[… back to the Contents]
3.4 Exercise
Add color to the checkbook program given last time. Use the following
scheme:
First clear the screen to white on blue using the command:
COLOR 8,1 : CLS
For the first prompts, keep the color as white on blue.
If a Debit is chosen, change color to bright yellow on blue.
If a Credit is chosen, change color to bright white on blue.
If the user makes a mistake, change to bright yellow on red.
Remember to change back to the original setting after each special color.
[… back to the Contents]
3.5 Sounds
Basic gives 2 methods for making sounds: SOUND and PLAY. SOUND is easier
to learn, but harder to use effectively. Its structure is
SOUND frequency, duration
Frequencies are in Hertz (cycles per seconds), durations in clock ticks
(about 18/second)
SOUND 220, 18 would thus give an A for one second.
In practise, you rarely try to duplicate music using SOUND. Instead it’s
useful for sirens and other sound effects. For example, try
10 for i = 1 to 1
20 sound i*100,5
30 next
Or, consider the following:
10 FOR I=1 TO 9 'phaser sounds
20 RII!=I/( 90)
30 FOR J= 1000 TO 2700 STEP 200:SOUND J,RII!:NEXT J
40 NEXT I
Play with the various loop commands to achieve different effects. Different
CPU speed may affect these sounds, so they are not generally recommended.
Most compilers have a timer function that allows you to delay a set amount
of time.
PLAY has a more complex syntax. I’ll briefly introduce it here. The best
way to learn this command is to practise using it in various ways.
PLAY requires a string that uses Microsoft’s music command language. Some
of the commands are:
| A-G | with optional # or -, play the notes A-G with sharps or flats.
| O n | sets the octave. An octave goes from C to B.
n can range from 0 to 6.
| N x | plays note x, from 0 to 84. This is an alternative to using
the notes and octaves, but is less useful if you're
transcribing from musical notation.
| L n | sets the length of the note. Can range from 1 to 64.
Any value, can be played, even 23rd notes!
| P n | pauses for length n.
| T n | sets the tempo in quarter notes /minute. For example
Largo is 40-60, Adagio is 66-76, Allegro is 120-168.
To play a sequence, you just construct a string and give it to PLAY.
x$ = "efg-fed#"
PLAY "T120 L8 o2" + x$ + "p4 o3 l16 " + x$
We first assign a sequence of notes to x$. Here we’re playing E, F, G flat,
F, E and D sharp. Then we play this sequence of notes at tempo 120, using
eighth notes in octave 2. We pause for a quarter note’s time, then move up
an octave, change to sixteenth notes and repeat the phrase.
Here’s some more interesting music to practise with:
0 '================== little mathy groves
20 PLAY "t160 o3"
30 PLAY "l8 g4eee4ddg4efe4.d"
40 PLAY "gag4a4gab2 p4ga b4b4b4.b g4b4d4.g "
50 PLAY "o2b4 o3 d4 e4f4g4.ge4d4 o2b4o3d4e2."
60 X$=INPUT$(1)
70 '===================== rising sun blues
80 T1$="t200 o2 l4 ge2gb2 o3c+ o3d2 e8d8 o2b2."
90 T2$="p2 b o3 e2ef8e.d o2b8o3c."
100 PLAY T1$+T2$
These are some phrases from folk songs. Note that I’ve used an alternate
way of designating the length in line 30. The G4 says to override the
default length of 8 for that one note. You can practise by transcribing
your favorite music, then changing tempo, or playing style.
In the second example, note that several phrases can be described
independently then built up as needed.
[… back to the Contents]
4. Arrays and DATA Statements
Last chapter, we added color and sound to our programming kit. We also saw
several ways to repeat instructions. In the next chapters we’ll finish our
introduction by looking at more efficient ways to store data, better methods
for performing repetitive sections of a program, and methods for storing
data in files.
[… back to the Contents]
4.1 Arrays
Arrays are a convenient way of representing groups of data. Consider the
months of the year. We could store them in a program as follows:
MONTH1$ = "JAN"
MONTH2$ = "FEB"
MONTH3$ = "MAR"
MONTH4$ = "APR"
...
Then when we want to print month X we could code:
IF X = 1 THEN PRINT MONTH1$
IF X = 2 THEN PRINT MONTH2$
IF X = 3 THEN PRINT MONTH3$
IF X = 4 THEN PRINT MONTH4$
...
This isn’t terribly efficient. And what if, instead of 12 items, we had
hundreds or THOUSANDS? We might want to get a total of all incomes in a
particular group. If there were just a few people to total we could code
TOTAL.INCOME = INCOME1 + INCOME2 + INCOME3...
But do you really want to write the equation for 10,000 people? Luckily we
have arrays. An array is a grouping of data that still lets us access
individual elements. An array is defined by a dimension statement:
DIM MONTH$(12)
This defines a group of 13 strings starting with MONTH$(0) and ending with
MONTH$(12). What’s in each one is still up to the programmer and the
program, but now we can access a particular item much easier. Using the
months example from above, we still need to define each item or element of
the array :
MONTH$(1) = "JAN"
MONTH$(2) = "FEB"
MONTH$(3) = "MAR"
MONTH$(4) = "APR"
....
So far no big change, but look at how easy it is to find a particular
value. Now we can get month X directly:
PRINT month$(X)
X is called an index. If we wanted to print all twelve months, we could
use a loop:
FOR X = 1 to 12
PRINT MONTH$(X)
NEXT
Compare this to the hassle of trying to print all months the first way.
When you have larger arrays, the savings become spectacular. These arrays
are called singly dimensioned arrays since there is only one index. But we
can also think of times we’d like to use several dimensions. Maybe we want
to track the production of several product lines over several months. We
could set
DIM PRODUCT(10, 12)
This defines an array that will hold sales information on 10 products for
each of 12 months. Thus PRODUCT(5, 11) would hold the sales for the 5th
product for the 11th month. Note, we could just as easily defined this as
DIM PRODUCT(12, 10)
where we have data for each month for each product. Now the data for the
5th product for the 11th month would be PRODUCT(11, 5). The first method is
the one usually preferred. Think of the array as starting with the larger
category (here, product type) on the left, moving to subcategories on the
right (months).
We can extend the number of dimensions to 3 if we want to show the sales
for each day of the month:
DIM PRODUCT(10, 12, 31
)
In theory you can have 255 dimensions. In reality you’d run out of memory
well before using all 255. Each added dimension will raise the required
storage by at least a factor of 2. The total memory space that is available
to Basic is only 64k. Thus even in our products example, we move from the
11 elements of PRODUCT(10) to the 143 of PRODUCT(10,12) to 4576 for
PRODUCT(10,12,31) ( 11*13*32 ). Another problem is the fact that most
people have trouble conceptualizing more than 3 or 4 dimensions. Usually
it’s easier to restate the problem. In years of programming I can recall
only a few instances where more than 3 dimensions made any practical sense.
Arrays form the basis of most data processing applications, especially in
areas like spreadsheets and statistics. In Basic, an array is considered to
start from item 0. Many programmers forget about this element and though it
will take up a little more space, you often can ignore it too. But there are
some cases where it comes in handy. Suppose we have a 5 by 5 array and want
to get totals in each direction. Using our product by month example, we’d
want to get totals for each product for all months and totals for each month
for all products. Without arrays we’d have to construct separate assignment
statements for each total. (No, this won’t be assigned as an exercise. But
just think how long it would take to do this, and how many places you could
mistype and cause an error!) The short program total.bas shows this:
10 ' totals.bas
20 ' do cross totals on an array
30 DIM X(5,5)
40 X(0,0) = 0 ' grand totals
50 FOR I = 1 TO 5
60 X(I,0) = 0
70 FOR J = 1 TO 5
80 X(I,J) = RND(1)*10
90 X(I,0) = X(I,0) + X(I,J) ' line totals
100 X(0,J) = X(0,J) + X(I,J) ' column totals
110 X(0,0) = X(0,0) + X(I,J) ' grand total
120 NEXT
130 NEXT
140 FOR I = 5 TO 0 STEP -1
150 IF I = 0 THEN PRINT " " ' extra space
160 FOR J = 5 TO 0 STEP - 1
170 IF J = 0 THEN PRINT " "; ' extra row
180 PRINT USING " ###.## ";X(I,J);
190 NEXT
200 PRINT
210 NEXT
First we define an array X to be 5 by 5. (Later you can expand this to more
rows and columns, but you may run out of space to display it on the screen.)
Since we’re only going to use the elements that have indices greater than 1,
we have 3 classes of elements that would otherwise be wasted. These are all
X(i, 0), X(0, j) and the single element X(0,0). We’ll use these as follows:
X(i, 0) will store the total for row i
X(0, j) will store the total for column j
X(0, 0) will store the grand total of all rows and columns
Line 40 sets the grand total to 0. Now we have a double-do loop (not to be
confused with the DOO-WAH loop that’s often used for timing.) Since this is
just a test, we don’t want to burden the user by having them enter all the
data, so in line 80 we just fill in a random number from 0 to 9. Then we
accumulate the line and column totals in lines 90-110. That’s all there is
to it. To display the results we’ll use a pair of reversed loops. This
will present the 0 indices in the last rows and columns, so the table will
look more like the spreadsheet format you may be used to. In the lower
right corner is X(0,0) the grand total.
The PRINT USING statement ” ###.##” says to print the value of X using 8
spaces. The value will be shown as up to 3 digits with 2 additional
places shown after the decimal place.
[… back to the Contents]
4.2 Exercises
1. Change the PRINT USING statement to show only 2 digits with one decimal
place. Reduce the total number of spaces used to 6.
2. Why do we need the PRINT USING statement in the first place? Hint: take
it out, replacing it with a simple PRINT X(I,J).
3.Change this program to allow creation of a spreadsheet that will produce a
table showing 6 different products in columns, with 12 months as the rows.
Include labels for each row and col. You can use something simple like
“Month 9” and “Prod 2”, but should use a loop rather explicit numbered
labels.
————————————————
As you program you’ll find countless ways to use arrays. Few programs of
any size can get along without them. Even small programs benefit. Let’s
look at another use. Program PLAYARRY.BAS shown below defines a series of
strings.
1 ' playarry.bas
10 PLAY "t220"
20 L$(1) = "l8o1 e "
30 L$(2) = "l8o1 g "
40 L$(3) = "l8o1 f "
50 H$(1) ="l32o3 defgab o4 cd"
60 H$(2) ="l32o4 edc o3 bagfe"
70 H$(3) = "l32 o3 dc o2bagfed"
80 H$(4)= "l32 o2 cdefgab o3c"
90 FOR K = 1 TO 3
100 IF K = 3 THEN PLAY "t220" ELSE PLAY "t180"
110 FOR I = 1 TO 12|
120 IF K = 1 OR K = 3 THEN PLAY L$((I MOD 3)+1)
130 IF K = 2 OR K = 3 THEN PLAY H$((I MOD 4)+1)
135 ' quit as soon as any key is pressed
140 IF INKEY$ > "" THEN 180
150 NEXT
160 NEXT
170 GOTO 90
180 END
[… back to the Contents]
4.3 DATA Statements
So far, whenever we’ve wanted to define initial values, we’ve just used
assignment statements. An alternative is the DATA statement. In its
simplest form, it consists of a READ statement and a DATA statement.
READ I
DATA 5
When these two statements are executed, I is assigned the value 5. In this
case there isn’t much savings over the more straightforward
I = 5
But the DATA statement is more flexible. You can define a whole array
with one concise statement:
FOR I = 1 to 10 : READ X(I) : NEXT
DATA 1,3,4,5,6, 6,5,6,5,6
Otherwise this would take 10 separate statements. You can also make DATA
statements conditional. RESTORE declares where the initial data statement
begins.
10 IF X = 1 THEN RESTORE 20 ELSE RESTORE 30
20 DATA 1,2,3
30 DATA 4,5,6
40 READ I,J,K
Here, when X is 1, I,J,K will be read as 1,2,3 otherwise they will be set to
4,5,6. RESTOREs are useful when you have many DATA statements in a program.
Normal usage places DATA statements near the corresponding READ statements,
but Basic doesn’t care. The program uses the next sequential DATA element.
DATA 1,2,3
READ X, Y
...... [ much more code ]
DATA 4,5,6
READ Z
In this fragment, Z is set to 3, since only 2 READ’s were done before it.
Be careful when coding DATA and READ statements. Having too few data
elements will cause a syntax error. Having more data elements than
corresponding READ’s is allowed, but could cause hard to find errors. A
safety measure would be to print out the last of a series of read when
testing so that you can ensure that values are being set the way you
intended.
Strings in DATA statements cause several additional concerns. When all the
strings are single words, they could be read in separated by commas, but if
some of them have commas as part of the item, then you’ll need to delimit
each string by quotes. Thus if we used the statements
DATA Seattle, WA, Bar Harbor, ME
READ FROM$, TO$
PRINT FROM$, TO$
we’d see
Seattle WA
In fact we want the city and state to be paired, so we’d need to write
DATA "Seattle, WA", "Bar Harbor, ME"
Let’s look at another way to use arrays and data statements. DRAWBOX1.BAS
prints boxes on the screen.
First, a slight digression. CHR$() is a special feature of Basic that
returns the ASCII equivalent of a number. ASCII is a set of symbols used in
programming. The first 128 characters (0-127) are rigidly defined. Some
computers such as the IBM PC define an additional set for the numbers 128-
255 but these are not standardized. In the IBM system these include the
symbols for creating boxes and forms. It’s easy to confuse ASCII characters
and their corresponding numbers. All characters and numerals are ASCII
characters. Thus the upper case ‘A’ is 65. Adding 1 to it gives ASCII 66 or
‘B’. Most confusion comes with numbers. ASCII 49 is the character ‘1’. Later
we’ll see ways of using this numeric feature in sorting and alphabetizing.
For now all you need to know is that PRINT CHR$(X) will display the X’th
ASCII character. Most Basic manuals have an ASCII chart as an Appendix.
Another option would be to write a short Basic program that prints all
values. The converse of the CHR$() function is ASC(). This returns the ASCII
value of a given character. Thus
PRINT ASC("1")
would print 49.
FOR I = 0 to 255
LPRINT I;CHR$(I) ' print item and ASCII equiv to printer
NEXT
This will end up 5 pages long. Try writing a program that will format this
into 8 columns. Thus the first line would have the 0, 32, 64, 96,…
elements, the second line would have 1, 33, 65, 97,… You can do this with
either one loop and a long print statement or nested loops and a single
print statement. Remember that a semicolon (;) after a print line will
prevent a skip to the next line. If you use this method, you’ll need to
have a separate print statement to shift to the next line.
Now we’re ready to draw a box:
1 ' drawbox1.bas
10 DIM CORNER(4)
20 KEY OFF
30 W = 15 ' width of box
40 H = 6 ' height of box
50 DATA 205, 186, 201, 187, 188, 200
60 READ HORIZ, VERTICAL
70 FOR I = 1 TO 4
80 READ CORNER(I)
90 NEXT|
100 X = 0
110 WHILE X < 1 OR X > 25 - H
120 INPUT "Upper left row";X
130 WEND
140 Y = 0
150 WHILE Y < 1 OR Y > 80 - W
160 INPUT "Upper left column";Y
170 WEND|
180 COLOR 15,1
190 CLS
200 LOCATE X,Y
210 PRINT CHR$(CORNER(1)); ' top line
220 FOR I = 1 TO W-2 : PRINT CHR$(HORIZ); : NEXT
230 PRINT CHR$(CORNER(2));
240 FOR J = 1 TO H - 2 ' create middle sectio
250 LOCATE X+J,Y
260 PRINT CHR$(VERTICAL);
270 FOR I = 1 TO W-2 : PRINT CHR$(32); : NEXT
280 PRINT CHR$(VERTICAL);
290 NEXT
300 LOCATE X+H-1, Y
310 PRINT CHR$(CORNER(4)); ' bottom line
320 FOR I = 1 TO W-2 : PRINT CHR$(HORIZ); : NEXT
330 PRINT CHR$(CORNER(3));
340 END
First we set the width and height of the box we want to draw. Then we
read in values for the horizontal and vertical linedrawing characters Í
and º. These are ascii values 205 and 186. Line 60 reads their values and
stores them as variables HORIZ and VERTICAL. Next, we need the the four
corners:
| +-- --+ | | | | | | | | | | | | +-- --+ |
The ascii values for the corners (201, 187, 188 and 200) are stroed in an
array (lines 70-90). We next ask for row and column coordinates. The
program draws the upper left corner, a row of horizontal characters and the
upper right corner. For each intermediate line, we draw a vertical section,
spaces and another vertical. We finish with the 2 lower corners connected
by another horizontal line.
[… back to the Contents]
4.4 Exercises
1. Allow user to draw several boxes without erasing them You’ll need to
keep the input on several lines, eg, lines 21 and 22. Clear each line
before prompting for new data.
2. Check the ASCII table in the back of your Basic manual. Find the
characters that can be used to make a single lined box and add them to the
program. Use a 2 dimensional array. That is redefine the arrays to be
CORNER(4,2), HORIZ(2), VERTICAL(2) and then ask the user whether they want
a single or double lined box.
3. More involved: This box is drawn from the top down. An alternative
would be to draw it as if a pen were sketching it. Rewrite the program to
draw the first line, then drop down the right hand side, come back along
the bottom right to left, then draw up to the original corner. For the
sides you’ll need to recalculate the x,y position each time. A FOR-NEXT
loop works fine.
———————————————————
We’ve looked at several different applications of arrays. We’ve also
managed to review many of the constructs that we covered in previous
sessions. In the next installments we’ll refine these ideas as we start
considering how to build larger programs in a structured manner.
[… back to the Contents]
4.5 Final Exercise
In preparation for next time, try this as a final exercise:
DIM DAYS(12)
DATA 31,28,31, 30,31,30, 31,31,30, 31,30,31
FOR I = 1 TO 12 : READ DAYS(I) : NEXT
Write a short program that takes as input a pair of numbers — month and
day. Calculate the number of days elapsed since the start of the year and
the number of days till the end of the year.
[… back to the Contents]
5. GOSUBS and FUNCTIONS
This time we’ll be examining GOSUB’s and FUNCTIONS. Up to now, when we’ve
wanted to repeat a section of code, we’ve had 2 choices. We could just copy
the code over, or we could set up a loop. Sometimes that still leaves us
with a messy solution
[… back to the Contents]
5.1 Why GOSUBS?
In the previous chapter, one of the exercises involved writing a short
program that took as input a pair of numbers — month and day, then
calculated the number of days elapsed since the start of the year and the
number of days till the end of the year.
But what if we want to input 2 sets of numbers? One way would be to repeat
the code. Another would be by using a GOSUB. This is a special command
that tells the program to jump to a particular line. It differs from a GOTO
in that when the command RETURN is found, the program jumps back to the
statement that called it. This lets a whole section of code be used in
several places. Thus
10 X = 1
20 GOSUB 100
30 X = 2
40 GOSUB 100
50 X = 3
60 GOSUB 100
70 END
100 PRINT "X squared is";X*X
110 RETURN
This will produce 3 lines showing the squares of 1, 2 and 3. Note the use
of the END statement. Take it out and see what happens.
We can turn the elapsed days calculation into a GOSUB as follows:
10 'julian.bas
20 DIM DAYS(12)
30 DATA 31,28,31, 30,31,30, 31,31,30, 31,30,31
40 FOR I = 1 TO 12 : READ DAYS(I) : NEXT
50 INPUT "Start month";M
60 INPUT "Start day";D
70 GOSUB 200
80 E1 = ELAPSED
90 INPUT "End month";M
100 INPUT "End day";D
110 GOSUB 200
120 DATE.DIF = ELAPSED - E1
130 PRINT
140 PRINT "difference =";DATE.DIF
150 END
200 '===================== calc elapsed time in days
210 ELAPSED = D
220 FOR I = 1 TO M - 1
230 ELAPSED = ELAPSED + DAYS(I)
240 NEXT
250 PRINT ELAPSED;"days elapsed. ";365-ELAPSED; "days to go"
260 RETURN
Here we ask for 2 sets of numbers and then calculate the difference
between them. When working with dates for comparison you’ll usually want
to deal with the number of days past the beginning of the year, so this
conversion routine is quite handy. This notation for dates is called
Julian (as in Caesar).
[… back to the Contents]
5.2 WE INTERRUPT THIS PROGRAM FOR A POLITICAL ANNOUNCEMENT…
Basic is often criticized for its lack of structure and difficulty in
reading and maintainence. This is more of a programmer’s problem though,
not the language’s. You can write structured programs in Basic just as
you can write spaghetti code in Pascal or unmaintainable trash in C.
Structured methods will produce good code in any of the languages. If you
follow these guidelines you’ll be able to keep your programs readable and
easy to maintain.
** The main portion of the program should start at the top and proceed to
the bottom. This means using FOR-NEXT and WHILE loops rather than GOTO’s.
(In older books or articles you may see the suggestion to jump to the end
of the program for initializing or other reasons. This made a small
amount of sense in the old days, but modern Basic interpreters are much
more efficient and you won’t notice any difference. What you will get is
a program that’s harder to work on.)
** Whenever possible, use GOSUB’s and, once we’ve defined them, function
calls to recycle repetive sections of programs. (Once a GOSUB is working
you’ll often be able to use them in other programs. Functions are even
more transportable.) With a compiler, we’ll use subroutines rather than
GOSUB’s for even more modularity.
** Start each GOSUB with a comment line. This should be the ONLY entry to
a GOSUB. It’s legal to enter a GOSUB at any point, but it’s just asking
for trouble. There are a very few instances where it’s justified, but I’d
put it at less than 1%. Using the comment line helps to delineate GOSUB’s
in the program.
** Similarly, the last statement in any GOSUB should be the only RETURN.
By applying these two rules you abide by one of the central dogmas of
structured programming — single input, single output. This ensures that
every time the subroutine is used it’s used the same. Thus you won’t get
unpredictable results. Sometimes you’ll have gosubs that finish in the
middle of a section. Rather than succumb to the temptation to RETURN from
that point, use a GOTO to jump down to the single RETURN at the bottom.
This is an insignificant increase in the amount of code, but results in an
immense increase in readability and ease of maintainence. It also makes
it easier to trace and isolate problems. If you know there’s only one
entry and one exit, you can concentrate on the routine that’s causing the
problem. You won’t have to worry what conditions are where the gosub is
called. If there were multiple entries or exits this would be an
additional problem.
GOSUB 100
....
END
100 ' ----------- subroutine to do stuff...
{ compute stuffs }
' are we done?
IF { final condition achieved } THEN 200
{ compute more stuffs }
200 RETURN
Stringing these ideas together we can draw a prototype program:
' main program
GOSUB 100 ' init stuff
' process stuff
FOR X = 1 to whatever
GOSUB 200 ' first part of processing
GOSUB 300
NEXT
GOSUB 400 ' final stuff
END
100 '=============== init
{ .... do processing here }
RETURN
200 '=============== first processing
{ .... do processing here }
RETURN|
300 '=============== second processing
{ .... do processing here }
RETURN
400 '=============== final stuff
{ .... do processing here }
RETURN
This is a common way to design a relatively straightforward program. It’s
much to be preferred to flowcharts. Here we’ve outline the structure of
our entire program without getting bogged down in petty details. Another
good feature of this design is that we can prototype. We could write the
initializing section and the final processing section without worrying for
the moment about the 2 middle sections. We could just put some print
statements in there to alert us to the fact they need to come later. This
method, called Top-Down Design starts with the most important elements of
the program, the overall structure and works in ever more detail. In this
way, the interactions among the program parts is being tested from the
start. Try this method with simple programs and you’ll find that soon you
can tackle more complicated projects. If you’re interested in more on
structured programming, look for books by Constantine or Yourdon. Most of
the ideas in these books can be applied to any language.
BACK TO OUR SCHEDULED PROGRAMMING….
[… back to the Contents]
5.3 Renumbering (RENUM)
If you’re using a compiler, you never need to worry about renumbering. This
feature alone might be enough to convince you to acquire a compiler.
RENUM is a command in the Basic interpreter that lets you renumber your
program. It’s especially useful since it takes care to maintain any
references you’ve set up. All GOTO, RESTORE, IF-THEN and GOSUB relations
will be the same after the RENUM as they were before. The numbers may be
different. This is the preferred way of changing numbers. You can do it by
hand, but if you miss one, it’ll be hard to find. The simplest form of
RENUM is just
RENUM
This renumbers the entire file, using 10 as an increment. If you have a
large file and want to reorder just part you can use
RENUM [newnum], [oldnum]
This will start at line [oldnum] and change it to [newnum] and continue
renumbering from there. Try this on a practise file until you feel
comfortable with the power of this command.
There are 2 philosophies about renumbering. Some people only use the RENUM
from the start. Here their GOSUB’s will often have changed numbers. As
long as you keep current listings, there’s no problem. Others design a
program with large separations between gosubs. Thus you might define them
as 1000, 2000, 3000, …, and interpolate later as necessary. This method
keeps the subroutines in the same place, but is more tedious to renumber.
You’d need to issue several commands:
RENUM 1000,1000
then list to find what used to be 2000
RENUM 2000,[new 2000 place]
then list to find what used to be 3000
RENUM 3000,[new 3000 place], etc
Try this with a file with several GOSUB’s. The first method is certainly
the easiest, and if you’re careful to follow the guidelines above your
program will still be readable.
[… back to the Contents]
5.4 Exercise
A. Design a program that will take 2 dates, prompting for year, month and
day. Then calculate the number of days that separate these two dates.
Hint: in our first treatment we ignored leap years. But when you know the
year, and are looking over several years you don’t have that luxury. You’ll
need to include a check for leap year in the new elapsed days gosub.
[… back to the Contents]
5.5 FUNCTIONS
Functions are similar to gosubs in that they provide a means of using the
same code in multiple ways and places. The difference is that functions are
defined at the start of a program, and, in interpreted Basic, are limited to
single lines. The other difference is that there can only be one value
returned from a function. The format for defining and using a function is:
DEF FNstuff(x) = { whatever the functions going to do }
......
Y = fnstuff(x) + 10
.....
if fnstuff(x) then print "text 1" else print "text 2"
Note that a function can be used anywhere a variable might be on the right
side of an assignment statement or in a conditional. You can’t use a
function on the left hand side though.
Actually we’ve already used several functions. RND is a function, so is
CHR$() that we’ve used to print ascii characters for the boxes. These are
system functions since they come as part of the language. Other useful
system functions include STRING$() and SPACE$(). Here’s some examples:
10 for i = 1 to 10
20 print SPACE$(i);i
30 next
40 for i = 0 to 255
50 if i<10 and i>12 then print string$((i mod 50) + 1, i)
60 next
[… back to the Contents]
5.6 Short exercises
Why do we use (i mod 50) + 1 instead of just i? why do we need the +1? Why
don’t we print characters 10 to 12? Try taking these out and see why.
Three very useful functions are Left$(), Right$() and Mid$(). These allow
us to process parts of strings. Try the following:
10 x$ = "abcdefghijklmnop"
20 print left$(x$, 5)
30 print right$(x$, 5)
40 print mid$(x$, 5,5)
Left$ and right$ give the left- and right-most characters. The length to be
used is given as the second parameter. Mid$() is more versatile. MID$(x$,
x, y) returns y characters, starting at the x’th. A final function for now
is LEN(). This returns the length of a string. Thus if we want to copy all
but the last 2 characters of a string, we could write
Y$ = left$( x$, len(x$)-2)
We don’t even have to know how long x$ is. We should check that x$ is at
least three long, though.
[… back to the Contents]
5.7 More Exercises
1. Write gosub that strips blanks from the end of a string x$. print the
original length and the new length of the string.
2. Write a gosub that strips multiple blanks from a string, reducing them
to single blanks. Strip all trailing blanks.
Writing your own functions is straightforward. All functions must start
with DEF FN then up to 6 characters to name the function.
DEF FNMAX( a,b) = abs( a >= b ) * a + abs( b > a ) * b
Here’s another twist on using conditionals. The phrase abs ( a >= b )
translates to 0 or 1 depending on the values of a and b. So, if a is larger
than or equal to b, we’ll return
(1 * a) + (0 * b)
Similarly,
DEF FNMIN( a,b) = abs( a <= b ) * a + abs( b < a ) * b
Some guidelines in designing functions: if a variable appears in the
definition itself, then it can be replaced by whatever is used in calling
it. Any other variables used in the function take the value of the current
state of that variable. Thus
x = fnmin( x, 100)
will ensure that x is no bigger than 100. The values X and 100 are sent to
replace a and b. If we have the function
DEF FNMAX2(a) = abs( a >= b ) * a + abs( b > a ) * b
then we’d call it with
x = fnmax2(x)
and the function would use whatever value b is currently set to. This can
cause strange happenings in your programs. It’s legal, but not recommended
as good technique.
We can even combine functions in defining a new function:
DEFMINMAX(min, max, x) = fnmin( fnmax( x, min), max)
Does this make sense to you? If not, try to work it through using a call
like
X = fnminmax(10, 100, X)
This is a useful function that ensures that X is in the range between 10 and
100. The function first takes the maximum of X or min, then takes the
minimum of x or max. Use this in programs like the checkbook program where
you can define the expected maximum and minimum values.
Function writing is some of the most fun in Basic. You can be quite
creative. While normally obscure tricks are frowned upon, in functions,
they’re almost okay, as long as you comment them. Once they work, you can
use them in many different places. Another advantage, is that, with proper
naming conventions your mainline code will be self-documenting. Which of
the following is easier to understand?
X = abs( a <= b ) * a + abs( b < a ) * b
or
X = fnmin(a,b)
Do it once. Comment it. Then put it away and call it when needed.
[… back to the Contents]
5.8 Exercise using GOSUBS or FUNCTIONS
Write a routine that accepts a string and returns a string with 10 @’s before
and behind it (@ is ascii 64). Put a space before and after the name. Thus
if we send the routine x$ = “Steve” we’ll get back
"@@@@@@@@@@@@ Steve @@@@@@@@@@@"
[… back to the Contents]
5.9 Extra Credit
Here’s a project that will also give you an idea of the way spreadsheets
work:
This project is more difficult than most we’ve looked at. Even if you
don’t do the actual programming, it would be worthwhile to design a
prototype on paper so that you understand the methods involved.
Start with the modified totals program from last time which shows 6
products over 12 months.
1. Write a 2 functions that take as input the I,J coordinates of the array
X and return the screen row and column where that element should be
printed.
DEF FNROW(i,j) = ???
DEF FNCOL(i,j) = ???
Now when we want to update element X(I,J) we can write
ROW = FNROW(I,J)
COL = FNCOL(I,J)
LOCATE ROW, COL
In fact, we can eliminate the assignments and just use the functions:
LOCATE FNROW(I,J), FNCOL(I,J)
2. Move the totals calculations to a GOSUB.
3. Use a gosub to prompt on lines 23 and 24 for the row and col to update.
Check that the row and columns are valid. Give an error message if
they’re not. Don’t allow entry of 0’s as we’re going to calculate them.
4. Once you have the new row and column, prompt and get a new value, then
recalculate the totals and use the functions to redisplay only the fields
that have changed.
One approach would be to get the new row and col I,J then store the old
value of X()
OLDVAL = X(I,J
Now recalc the totals:
X(0,J) = X(0,J) - OLDVAL + X(I,J)
X(I,0) = X(I,0) - OLDVAL + X(I,J)
X(0,0) = X(0,0) - OLDVAL + X(I,J)
Then redisplay these 3 values plus X(I,J)
In outline form:
{ get initial values }
GOSUB 1000 ' calc totals
{ display initial values using functions
to locate the elements }
WHILE {still asking for more changes}
GOSUB 2000 ' get new row, co
GOSUB 1000 ' calc totals
{ use functions to display totals & new value}
WEND
1000 '======= calc totals
RETURN
2000 '======= get new row & col
RETURN
[… back to the Contents]
6. Files
In previous chapters we learned how to structure programs and reuse sections
of code with GOSUBs and FUNCTIONs. At this point, you’ve learned enough
about Basic to write useful programs. However, we still have no way of
preserving the results of a program. What if we want to keep results from
one run to another. The solution is the use of files.
We’ve already used files to save our Basic programs. When you do a normal
save from within Basic, only the Basic interpreter can use it. If you want
to see the program in more readable form, you can save it as an ASCII file
by modifying the save command:
SAVE "progname.bas", A
Try this with one of your programs, using a different name so that you have
the original and the ascii version. Then exit Basic and use DIR to look at
the sizes of the programs. Notice that the ascii cersion takes up more
room. Next use the TYPE command to examine the files:
TYPE "origname.bas"
TYPE "progname.bas"
If you have an editor or word processor, you’ll find that you can modify the
ascii version but not the original. (If you use an editor, though, you’ll
be responsible for putting in your own line numbers.)
Other common uses of files are to hold data that must remain when the
computer is turned off, or to handle large quantities of data. Basic
provides 2 ways to handle files — sequential and random access.
[… back to the Contents]
6.1 Sequential versus Random Files
Some of this chapter may seem more techincal than previous installments.
Don’t worry about the details. The important thing is to understand the
distinctions between the 2 types of files and when each is appropriate.
All files contain records. Records are the repeating elements within a
file. They in turn are usually broken down into fields. For example, a
file record for a mailing list program might have fields with the name,
address and phone number of each person. Sequential and random files handle
records and fields quite differently. Each has definite advantages and
drawbacks.
Sequential files read or write from the start of the file and proceed in an
orderly fashion to the end of the file. Think of them as a cassette tapes.
In order to find out what’s in the tenth record, we need to read the
preceding 9 records. (We may not do anything with the information we read,
but we have to read it). Random files give you immediate access to any
record in the file. A jukebox with its dozens of records is a good example.
When you request a record, the mechanical arm goes directly to the record
you requested and plays it. In computer programs, sequential files must
always be accessed from the beginning, while random files can select any
record at any time.
[… back to the Contents]
6.2 What’s in a file?
————————
Consider a file as a group of bytes. Any additional structure is our
logical description for convenience and understanding. We’ll set up a
simple data record and see how the two types of files deal with it. Our
data consists of the following fields:
name
city
age
phone
The following program asks for the information to make 3 records, then
stores them to a file. It then reads that file and displays the results on
the screen. Ignore the actual commands for the moment, and concentrate on
what the program is trying to do. First we’ll do it sequentially. (see the
program SEQFILE.BAS)
We read the name, city, age and phone number (lines 30-80), then write them
to the file (lines 90-120). When we’re done, the file physically looks like
this:
------------------------------------------------------
| .name............/.city......./age/.phone.../.name.|
| ...../.city......./age/.phone.../.name....../.city.|
| ...../age/.phone... |
------------------------------------------------------
However, when we read it back in, it’s interpreted this way:
.name............/
.city......./
age/
.phone.../
.name.. ...../
.city......./
age/
.phone.../
.name....../
.city....../
age/|
.phone...
Note that each record takes up a variable amount of space in the file. Thus
we have no way of predicting where a particular record begins. If we start
at the beginning and just read one record, field by field that never
concerns us. Sequential files are thus most useful when we have either very
short files, or when we know we’ll always want to read the entire file into
memory. Their main advantage is that they’re easy to program and maintain.
We’ll look at the organization of a random file, then return to see how to
program them. The following program performs the same tasks as the first,
but creates a random access file (See RANDFILE.BAS)
Again, we read the name, city, age and phone number, and write them to the
file. This time, the file will physically look like this:
---------------------------------------------------
| name................city..............agphone...|
| name................city..............agphone...|
| name................city..............agphone...|
---------------------------------------------------
Even though the file is called random, the data appears ordered! Each
record consists of 48 bytes or characters. The information is stored
exactly the same for each record. Thus if we want to find the third record,
we know that it begins on the 97th byte. There’s no need to look at the
intervening information. We can point directly to the start of the record
and read it. Random access files are a bit more complex than sequential,
and take more programming effort to maintain, but they are much more
flexible. They’re best suited to cases where data will be required in no
particular order.
Random files are also preferred for large files that are frequently updated.
Consider, if you have 1000 records and change 10 of them, a sequential file
makes you read all 1000, make the changes, then write all 1000 again.
That’s 2000 disk reads and writes. With a random file, you only need 10
reads and 10 writes.
[… back to the Contents]
6.3 Using Files
Now that we have some idea of why we have two types of files, let’s look at
how to use them:
The programs introduce several new commands and concepts. The first is the
control of files. The OPEN and CLOSE commands tell DOS which areas of the
disk to manipulate. You can have several files open at one time. For
example, you might have a customer file, an invoice file and a pricing file.
Basic distinguishes among them by assigning a number to each one. The #
sign in front of the file number is optional, but recommended to distinguish
it as an identifier rather than a numeric value. OPEN is used by both types
of files, but has a different syntax for each. CLOSE is used when you’re
finished with a file. When you leave a Basic program, all files will be
automatically closed, but it’s good practise to have your program do
[… back to the Contents]
6.4 Sequential Details
Sequential files must be opened for either reading or writing. In either
case, an invisible pointer is maintained that indicates where the next
record is coming from. The format of the statement is
OPEN filename FOR [ INPUT / OUTPUT / APPEND ] AS handle
where filename is any explicit filename or variable. Usually existing files
are read first, new information added, then the entire file is written out.
APPEND is a special form of OUTPUT. Any existing file is kept and new
information is added to the end of the file. An example might be a file
that keeps a list of errors encountered during the program. There’s no need
to read in previous errors, but you also don’t want to destroy them. So you
use APPEND to add to the back of the file.
Since the filename can be a variable, you can make your programs more user-
friendly by showing the user what files are available. For example, if you
have a series of files that are called MAR.DAT, APR.DAT, etc, you could
display a list with the FILES command and then prompt for the one the user
wants. The FILES command puts a directory on the screen. You can use
wildcards to limit the files displayed:
10 FILES "*.dat"
20 INPUT "Which file to report"; filename$
30 OPEN filename$ FOR OUTPUT AS #2
Records are written and recovered with the PRINT #, WRITE #, and INPUT #
statements. INPUT # reads the requested variables from the given file. You
have to be careful that the variable types match. Ie, you can’t read a
string into an integer variable. PRINT # has several problems for
beginners, mostly related to how it formats the fields before writing. The
Basic manual describes the problems and their solutions if you’re in a
masochistic mood. For our purposes, the WRITE # statement is more useful.
It encloses each string in quotation marks and separates fields on a line by
commas. In this example, we’ve made it even simpler by writing each field
separately. (WRITE places a linefeed at the end of each operation, so when
you TYPE TEST.DAT each field will be on a separate line. This uses an extra
byte per line, but makes data files easier to display and programs easier to
debug.)
[… back to the Contents]
6.5 Notes on Random Files
Random files, as illustrated in the second program use the same OPEN
statement for input and output. After assigning a number, they also require
a length for each record. The FIELD statement is also required before a
random file can be used. This command defines the length of each field in a
record. You should be careful to use different variable names for the field
elements and for your actual data. There are some places where Basic lets
you use the same name, but you’re taking an unncessary risk of causing bugs.
Since the field statement defines the length of each field, you have to do a
little more planning with random files. In the sequential file, we never
had to consider the length of a name, or whether a phone number had an area
code attached. Here, we make the conscious decision that names will be only
20 characters, and that phone numbers will not have area codes. A special
case is the storage of numbers. All items in random files are stored in a
special format. For numbers, this means all integers are stored as 2 bytes.
Even if the actual number is 4 or 5 digits, it’s compressed before storage
using the functions defined below. (Thus random files are often much
smaller than sequential files.)
The next difference is seen in the method used to write a record. First all
fields are determined. Then, each element of the field statement is set up
using the LSET statement. For strings, this is just an assignment:
LSET field.element = string.variable
For integers, we first need to make the number into a string using the
special function MKI$()
LSET field.element = MKI$( integer.variable)
(Similar MK functions are available for converting single and double
precision numbers.)
Then we write this record with the statement
PUT #1, rec.number
Note that we don’t even mention the fields. The FIELD statement
automatically takes current values of n$, c$, a$ and p$ associated with file
#1 and uses them in GET and PUT statement. Note also, that if, for the next
record, we just changed the n$, the previous values of the other elements
would remain.
To read a record, we need only it’s position. To read the third
record:
GET #1, 3
Now the element values are in n$, c$, a$ and p$ so we need to translate them
to variables that can be used in our program (lines 190-220). The converse
of MKI$() function is CVI(), or convert integer.
That’s it! Now we have 2 methods for saving data and several ways to
manipulate the files.
[… back to the Contents]
6.6 Questions and Answers
*** Add verification to the programs to ensure that the age is within a
certain range and that all phone numbers are of the form XXX-XXXX.
For the following, write down what you think will happen before trying it
with the programs.
*** What happens if you enter unanticipated data to each file? Eg,
what occurs if you enter a 3 or 4 digit age? or a phone number with
zip code?
*** What happens if the name contains commas or quotation marks?
*** What happens if you open and read a random file in a sequential
manner or vice versa?
[… back to the Contents]
6.7 Projects
These projects are a little longer than the average, but most of them use
sections we’ve done previously. When you finish these you’ll have a good
working understanding of Basic files.
1. Sequential files
Use the earlier checkbook programs to create a checkbook file. This
should use the following records
:
check number
description
amount
At the start of the program, you’ll need to read in the starting balance.
At the end, you’ll have the ending balance. An outline of the program might
be:
dim check(200), desc$(200), amount(200)
open "checks.dat" for input as #1
input #1, start.balance
input #1, n.checks
for n = 1 to n.checks
input #1, check(n), desc$(n), amount(n)
next
input #1, final.balance
{ prompt for transactions, keep a running total }
close 1
open "checks.dat" for output as #1
write #1, start.balance
write #1, n.checks
for n = 1 to n.checks
write #1, check(n), desc$(n), amount(n)
next
write #1, final.balance
close
It would also be nice to have a report program. This would just read the
file and print a report. You should have the deposits and debits in two
different columns
.
2. Random files
Change the earlier name and address example to allow updates and additions.
In outline form:
open "test2.dat" as #1 len=48
field 1, .....
prompt for highest record number
[ normally this would be stored in the file itself,
but for simplicity, assume that the user must know. ]
prompt "Add or Update or Display?"
If {ADD} then
{record number?}
{prompt for information}
{write record}
If {Update} then
{record number?}
{read current information}
{display current information}
{information to change?}
{write record}
If {Display} then
{record number?}
{read current information}
{display current information}
Note that there are several candidates for GOSUBs or FUNCTIONs here. What
happens if you read a record beyond the end of the file? What if you write
past the end?
{information to change?}
If you don’t have the time to do the entire program, implement only one part
of it. Put in the prompting for the other sections anyway. If those
sections are selected, then print a short message saying that the selection
chosen isn’t available yet. This is a method that’s often used in actual
software development. You block out the main segments of the program, then
use stubs to indicate where later functions will be. This way a partial
program can be tested early rather than trying to debug an entire program at
once
.
[… back to the Contents]
7. Simple Graphics
In the next few sections, we’ll look at the graphics abilities of the IBM
PC. To fully use these chapters, you’ll need access to an IBM with a CGA,
EGA or VGA board and monitor. These are graphics adapters that allow you to
go beyond simple text.
[… back to the Contents]
7.1 WIDTH
So far whenever we’ve written information to our monitor screen, we haven’t
done anything special. Thus we’ve accepted Basic default modes of text
screens with 80 columns. There are several ways we can change these
defaults. We can set the width of a text screen to be either 40 or 80. In
40 column, the letters are larger, so sometimes easier to read. 80 column
mode is crisper with sharper colors. Both modes have their applications.
To change from one mode to another, use the WIDTH command
WIDTH screen.width
On a monochrome screen, the width command works, but the size of
characters doesn’t change. All that happens is that display is limited
to the left hand side of the screen.
[… back to the Contents]
7.2 SCREEN
Let’s examine how the IBM screen display is set up. This is specific to the
IBM PC environment. If a machine fails the compatibility test it’s often
related to how its video display is set up. Any “100% compatible” machine
must be able to perform all the commands that we’ll discuss in these next
few sections. (You can use the example programs to test their claims when
shopping!)
The following few paragraphs may tell you more than you want to know about
the internals of video displays. You can skim them if you wish, then catch
up with us below (just press F2)
The first thing we’ll need to understand is what an attribute is.
Attributes describe how a character is displayed on the screen. We’ve
actually been using attributes without worrying about them up to now. Basic
lets you do this with the COLOR command. When you enter,
COLOR 15,1
you’re telling Basic to set the attribute to 31 which is displayed as
intense white on a dark blue background. COLOR commands stay in effect
until the next COLOR command is issued. But why 31? The attribute byte,
like all bytes can take values from 0 to 255. We can look at it as a series
of 8 bits, each of which can be 0 or 1. The positions within the byte are
interpreted as follows:
+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
| | | | | |
+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
_____ ______
foreground = 000 to 111
intensity 0 or 1
background 000 to 111
blinking 0 or 1
Looks intimidating, but in practise, it’s easy to use. It’s an extremely
efficient way to code the foreground color, its intensity, the background
color, and whether or not the character is blinking, all in one number. The
foreground color can vary from 0 to 7, in binary terms this means
000 = 0 black
001 = 1 blue
010 = 2 green
011 = 3 cyan
100 = 4 red
101 = 5 magenta
110 = 6 yellow/brown
111 = 7 white
Thus any 3 bits can be used to code for 8 numbers. Next we code the
intensity by setting the 4’th or 8’s bit on if we want intense color,
leaving it at 0 otherwise. So to code for intense white, we’d use 1111.
The initial 1 says intense, the next 3 give 7, white’s code. Binary 1111 is
the same as decimal 15, the number we’ve been using for intense white all
along. We can also code 8 possible background colors using another 3 bits.
Since these start in column 5, this is the same as multiplying them be 2 to
the 4th power = 16. (Column 1 is 2 to the 0th = 1.) That brings our total
to 7 bits. We use the last, the 128’s column bit to show whether or not to
blink. We’ve wasted nothing and stored 4 pieces of information in one tiny
byte. There’s no need to remember all the details. To use attributes you
need only use the following formula:
attribute = 16 * background color + foreground color
if intense then attribute = attribute + 8
if blinking then attribute = attribute + 128
We can make this into a function:
DEF FNATT(fgd, bgd, intense, blink) =
128 * blink + bgd*16 + intense * 8 + fgd
so if we wanted to calculate the attribute for intense white on blue,
we’d use:
att = fnatt(7,1,1,0)
Okay, the skimmers should have caught up with us by now….
In order to store information on the screen, we need to know what to put
there, and how to display it. The IBM method stores the information as
repeating pairs of bytes. Even numbered bytes tell which ascii character,
odd bytes give their attribute.
If each character needs 2 bytes, then a 25 line screen of width 80 requires
4000 bytes. A 40 column screen needs only 2000. However, the IBM video
display has room to store 16K! Early applications failed to capitalize on
this extra memory, since the tricks we’ll look at now work only with color
graphics adapters and their successors. It turns out that we can use that
extra memory to display multiple screens at once. We can think of the IBM
memory as being a chunk of 16K broken down as follows:
------------------------------
| 80 col | 40 col |
------------------------------
|0 |0 |
| |----- 2K -----|
| |1 |
----- 4K -----|------4K------|
|1 |2 |
| |----- 6K -----|
| |3 |
----- 8K -----|----- 8K------|
|2 |4 |
| |---- 10K -----|
| |5 |
---- 12K -----|---- 12K------|
|3 |6 |
| |---- 14K -----|
| |7 |
---- 16K -----|---- 16K------|
Normally, we’d say that Basic limits us to 64K of code and data in our
programs. However, the IBM video display can be thought of as an additional
16K of memory. We’ll look at some ways that extra memory can be used. The
first and simplest way is just to display information. In the default
screen of 80 columns and 25 rows, we have 4000 bytes of information.
Looking at the map, we see that in fact there’s room for 4 pages of
information, numbered 0 to 3. Similarly, the 40 column width gives us 8
pages, from 0 to 7. The SCREEN command lets us switch among these pages.
SCREEN mode, burst, apage, vpage
For now, the only mode we’ll use is 0 which is text mode. The burst is 0
for RGB screens, 1 for composite. (This is an archaic leftover from early
video monitors. Set the burst to 1 for any modern system.) The two
interesting guys are apage and vpage, standing for active page and visual
page. These can range from 0 to 3 or 7 depending on width. The visual page
is the screen you’re currently showing on your monitor. The active page is
the page to which your program reads or writes. Normally these are the
same, but some interesting effects are possible if you vary them. Screens
are easier to show than explain. (See program SCR.BAS).
This program shows how screens work. First we write a line on each of the 4
screens, switching both active and visual. Then we write to each of the
screens, while keeping 0 as the active screen. Finally we switch from
screen to screen without writing anything more, to prove that in fact we
have done something. Why bother? What happened while the program was
writing to the other pages? Did you notice a delay? What if you had
several pages of information, such as instructions that you wanted to store
for easy reference, and didn’t want to rewrite each time? If you stored
them to an alternate page, you’d only have to write them once, then by just
shifting screens you could get that information instantly.
[… back to the Contents]
7.3 Exercise
Using the checkbook balancing program, change the program so that any errors
are displayed on an alternate page. Write the error first, then shift to
the page. Keep track of errors and write each one on a new line. (Be
careful that you don’t try to write past line 25!) After each error, shift
to the page showing accumulated errors, then wait for a keypress before
coming back to the main program.
The commands we’ll be learning next are:
CIRCLE
LINE
PSET
PAINT
In addition we’ll see new uses for:
COLOR
SCREEN
We’ll look at 2 programs this time that illustrate these commands:
** PALETTE.BAS shows the combinations of colors we can achieve
** LINES.BAS shows some of the straighter applications
First we’ll look at circles and colors:
10 'palette.bas
15 KEY OFF
20 CBK = 1
30 PALET = 0
40 P = 0
50 P2 = 0
60 SCREEN 1,P2 : COLOR CBK, PALET : CLS
70 GOSUB 250
80 X$=INPUT$(1)
90 WHILE X$ <> " "
100 IF X$ <> "P" AND X$ <> "p" THEN 160
110 P = P + 1
120 IF P > 2 THEN P = 0
130 PALET = P MOD 2
140 IF P = 2 THEN P2 = 1 ELSE P2 = 0
150 SCREEN 1, P2
160 IF X$ <> "B" AND X$ <> "b" THEN 190
170 CBK = CBK + 1
180 IF CBK > 31 THEN CBK = 0
190 COLOR CBK, PALET
200 GOSUB 250
210 X$ = INPUT$(1)
220 WEND
230 SCREEN 0,0 : COLOR 15,1
240 END
250 ' --------- showit
260 FOR I = 1 TO 3
270 CIRCLE (50 + I* 50, I*40), 30, I
280 PAINT (50 + I* 50, I*40), I, I
290 NEXT
300 LOCATE 21,5: PRINT "screen 1,";P2;
310 PRINT " COLOR";CBK;",";PALET
320 LOCATE 22,5: PRINT "Use 'B' to change background";
330 LOCATE 23,5: PRINT "Use 'P' to cycle palettes";
340 LOCATE 24,5: PRINT "Press spacebar when done....";
350 RETURN
I use a variation of this routine in several of my games. It gives players
the ability to configure the colors to their taste (or lack thereof). Let’s
look at how it’s done:
First, we’ll meet the new players:
SCREEN — In earlier chapters we used SCREEN 0 to switch among text
screens. Here, we use SCREEN 1,0 to tell Basic we wish to use graphics.
This changes the orientation of the screen from 80 by 25 text characters to
320 by 200 pixels or dots. This lets us create graphics images, lines and
patterns.
COLOR — This command is similar to that used in text mode. However, the
second argument can only be 0 or 1. The first argument still sets the
background color.
COLOR 2, 0
This sets the background to green, and uses the 0 palette. CGA Graphics
mode has two palettes — 0 uses colors green/red/yellow-brown and 1 uses
cyan/magenta/white. If you issue a palette change command, the screen stays
the same and the color switch. An undocumented palette can be achieved by
issuing the SCREEN 1,1 command. This is illustrated in the program. This
palette contains cyan/red/white and can make your programs more appealing
than the universal cyan/magenta of IBM graphics.
CIRCLE — This command, not surprisingly, draws a circle of given color
and radius.
CIRCLE (X,Y), radius, color
Here, the cursor will be at X,Y (in pixels), with 0,0 at the upper left
hand corner. The radius is in pixels, and the color is 0 to 3.
PAINT — fills an area with a color, starting at the indicated point.
For circles or boxes, the center works well, but it’s not required. The
paint starts at that point and continues in all directions until a line of
the indicated color is reached. Unfortunately, PAINT has a nasty habit of
leaking if you try to PAINT an unclosed object, so use it with care.
The next program builds on what we’ve learned with screen and color and
adds straight lines and patterns. (See program LINES.BAS, included in the
shareware package.)
In addition to the commands we met earlier, this program introduces 2
new ones:
PSET (X,Y), color — places a dot of color at the indicated pixel. You
can think of this as anchoring the cursor, also, similar to the LOCATE
command in text mode.
LINE — This command has two forms, and several options. It’s simplest,
but longest form is
LINE (x1,y1) - (x2,y2),color
This draws a line from x1,y1 to x2,y2 in this color. From this point, we
could write
LINE (x2,y2) - (x3,y3),color
to add a new segment starting at x2,y2, or we could just write
LINE - (x3,y3),color
which says to draw the line from the last cursor location to x3,y3. There’s
a simple way of drawing boxes and optionally filling them. Just add the
commands B or BF to the LINE command:
LINE (x1,y1) - (x2,y2), c, b
LINE (x1,y1) - (x2,y2), c, bf
Here the two points represent the upper left and lower right corners of a
box. The 4 lines represented by these corners are drawn automatically.
The exercises this time are a little more involved than previously. This is
because Basic graphics commands are fun to play with, AND because there are
several points that can best be made after you’ve had some time to
experiment. Even if you don’t do any of the exercises, you might find it
interesting to read through this exercise section.
[… back to the Contents]
7.4 More Exercises
A. Create a program that randomly draws boxes and circles on the screen,
filling them with color. Experiment with different colored borders and
painting. Watch what happens when borders overlap.
At this point in the series, if you’ve been doing your homework, you should
find the previous exercise straightforward. The next project should be more
challenging!
B. This project is quite similar to the simple game proposed last time. The
intent this time is slightly different. By using the function keys we can
create a simple line drawing program.
1. First draw a large box on the screen. Don’t allow the user to cross this
boundary. (Solution hint: You’ll need to calculate the x,y coordinates
before you draw them & check them against some boundary conditions. For
example, if you draw the boundary at the outer edge, using
LINE (0,0) - (319,189), 1, B
Then you need to check that any proposed x is between 0 and 319 and any y is
between 0 and 189.
2. Use the program outlined last time (for interpreting the arrow keys) to
create a new program that draws lines. The pseudocode will be:
{ draw a point in the middle of the screen}
if {left arrow pressed} then { draw line segment to left}
if { up arrow pressed} then { draw line segment up }
....
You can make the line segments some constant amount or a random amount.
2. Use F3 & F4 to increase and decrease speed. Remember to check for a
speed of 0. Don’t let the speed go below 0, though.
3. Use F5 to change the color of the lines being drawn
4. Use F6 to draw a circle at the current location.
[… back to the Contents]
7.5 For Super-Extra Credit
Last time we described a game in which you tried to control a moving cursor
without hitting characters that were already on the screen. This time we
didn’t include those rules in the game description. Before reading further,
try to think of reasons why this might not be as simple as it was with
characters. Can you think of methods by which you could get around these
exercises? (No need to write the actual programs.)
Ready?
When you draw a line, how can you tell what pixels compose the line between
the 2 points? One of the strengths of the LINE command is also a drawback.
We just tell it to draw a line from (x,y) to (x’,y’), but we don’t have to
calculate the individual pixels that get drawn. With characters, we know
exactly which ones to look at. For the line, we’d need to get out our trig
manuals to calculate exactly which pixels were being covered.
There are algorithms that describe how to tell if 2 lines intersect, or if a
particular point is on a line, but even using these, we’d be stretching an
interpreted language to try to do it all in realtime.
Don’t feel too bad if you didn’t solve this exercise. It’s pretty difficult
to find a solution that’s both practical and fast. The point rather is that
Basic provides an extremely flexible method for investigating such involved
and difficult exercises. In several of my published games I’ve wrestled
with these very problems. My approach is to write short Basic programs
first, examining the difficulties in detail. When the problem’s solved, I
can then either compile it in PowerBasic or rewrite it in another language.
So even if my final language is C or Pascal, Basic is often my first choice
for quick & dirty graphics prototyping.
[… back to the Contents]
7.6 The End of the Beginning
This completes the BASIC TRAINING TUTORIAL. We’ve covered a large number of
topics, and if you’ve done some of the exercises, projects and played with
the example programs, you should have a solid grasp of the elements of Basic
at this point. What you do next depends on the types of programs you want
to write. If you’re interested in studying more of what Basic can do, and
what a compiler can add, the Advanced Tutorial will help. When you
register, you get it for free.
ADVANCED BASIC. Topics include: Animation techniques, Shape Shifting
techniques, Error Handling, Chaining, Windows, Peek / poke, Bload / bsave,
Plus, details on differences between interpreters and compilers. And
complete source for all examples. Advanced Basic is ONLY available to
registered users.
Registration costs only $20, and you will receive The Advanced Basic
Tutorial as a bonus, along with more source code for all the examples in
that tutorial.
In addition, when you register you also get an evaluation copy of the
LIBERTY Basic compiler for Windows. This program lets you develop Basic
programs in the Windows environment, without the need for the Windows
Software Development Kit.
You might also want to order the Games Package option. The Games package
includes source code for 2 Cascoly programs that you can compile and modify
for your personal use.
ATC — An air traffic controller game that’s perfect for a few minutes or
hours of fun. Easy to learn, but difficult to master. The game tracks best
scores at each of 20 levels of difficulty. Shows how to use real time
interrupts and error detection.
ECOMASTER — The CGA version of Cascoly’s ecology game. A diverting ecology
game in which you bid for and trade animals based on their abilities to
thrive in different environments.
To Register, return to DOS, and enter the command:
| REGISTER |
An order form will be printed for you. Or send $20 + $4 shipping to:
| Cascoly Software |
| 4528 36th Ave NE |
| Seattle WA 98105 |
[… back to the Contents]
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